Review ArticleReview Article
Open Access

The battle against Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Public health perspective

Sultan T. Al-Otaibi
Saudi Medical Journal December 2020, 41 (12) 1285-1291; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15537/smj.2020.12.25459

References

  1. ↵
    1. Cui J,
    2. Li F,
    3. Shi ZL
    (2019) Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 17:181–192.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
    SARS Basics Fact Sheet [Updated 2017 December 6. Accessed 2020 August 16], Available from URL: https://www.cdc.gov/sars/about/fs-sars.html.
    1. World Health Organization. SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
    , Updated 2020. Accessed 2020 August 16, Available in URL: https://www.who.int/ith/diseases/sars/en/.
  4. ↵
    1. Memish ZA,
    2. Perlman S,
    3. van Kerkhove MD,
    4. Zumla A
    (2020) Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 395:1063–1077.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  5. ↵
    1. Zhu N,
    2. Zhang D,
    3. Wang W,
    4. Li X,
    5. Yang B,
    6. Song J,
    7. et al.
    (2020) A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 382:727–733.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  6. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Archived: WHO Timeline - COVID-19, Updated 2019 December 31, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  7. ↵
    1. Chan JF,
    2. Yuan S,
    3. Kok KH,
    4. Kai-Wang K,
    5. Chu H,
    6. Yang J,
    7. et al.
    (2020) A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 395:514–523.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  8. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    WHO Statement regarding cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China, Updated 2020 January 9, Availble from URL: https://www.who.int/china/news/detail/09-01-2020-who-statement-regarding-cluster-of-pneumonia-cases-in-wuhan-china. Accessed 2020 August 8.
  9. ↵
    1. Richman DD,
    2. Whitley RJ,
    3. Hayden FG
    , eds (2016) Clinical Virology (ASM Press, Washington, DC), 4th ed, pp 1243–1265.
  10. ↵
    1. Zhou P,
    2. Yang XL,
    3. Wang XG,
    4. Hu B,
    5. Zhang L,
    6. Zhang W,
    7. et al.
    (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579:270–273.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  11. ↵
    1. Lu R,
    2. Zhao X,
    3. Li J,
    4. Niu P,
    5. Yang B,
    6. Wu H,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Genomic characterization and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 395:565–574.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  12. ↵
    1. Mason RJ
    (2020) Pathogenesis of COVID-19 from a cell biology perspective. Eur Respir J 55:2000607.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Wan Y,
    2. Shang J,
    3. Graham R,
    4. Baric RS,
    5. Li F
    (2020) Receptor recognition by novel coronavirus from Wuhan: An analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS. J Virol 94:e00127–20.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Reyfman PA,
    2. Walter JM,
    3. Joshi N,
    4. Anekalla FR,
    5. McQuattie-Pimentel AC,
    6. Chiu S,
    7. et al.
    (2019) Single-cell transcriptomic analysis of human lung provides insights into the pathobiology of pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 199:1517–1536.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  15. ↵
    1. de Wilde AH,
    2. Snijder EJ,
    3. Kikkert M,
    4. van Hemert MJ
    (2018) Host factors in coronavirus replication. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 419:1–42.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  16. ↵
    1. Wu Z,
    2. McGoogan JM
    (2020) Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 323:1239–1242.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  17. ↵
    1. Li Q,
    2. Guan X,
    3. Wu P,
    4. Wang X,
    5. Zhou L,
    6. Tong Y,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med, 1199–1207.
  18. ↵
    1. Sanche S,
    2. Lin Y,
    3. Xu C,
    4. Romero-Severson E,
    5. Hengartner N,
    6. Ke R
    (2020) High Contagiousness and Rapid Spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. Emerging Infectious Diseases 26:1470–1477.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Natsuko Imai,
    2. Ilaria Dorigatti,
    3. Anne Cori,
    4. Christl Donnelly,
    5. Steven Riley,
    6. Neil M
    (2020) Ferguson. Estimating the potential total number of novel Coronavirus cases in Wuhan City, China. Imperial College London COVID-19 Response Team, 1–7.
    1. Wu JT,
    2. Leung K,
    3. Leung GM
    (2020) Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study. Lancet 395:689–697.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Riou J,
    2. Althaus CL
    (2020) Pattern of early human-to-human transmission of Wuhan 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), December 2019 to January 2020. Euro Surveill 25:2000058.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  22. ↵
    1. Du Z,
    2. Wang L,
    3. Cauchemez S,
    4. Xu X,
    5. Wang X,
    6. Cowling BJ,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Risk for transportation of 2019 novel coronavirus disease from Wuhan to other cities in China. Emerg Infect Dis 26:1049–1052.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  23. ↵
    1. Arab News. The Coronavirus Pandemic: Ramadan gatherings cause COVID-19 cases among Saudi children, women to soar [Updated 2020 May 14
    , Available form URL: https://www.arabnews.com/node/1674601/saudi-arabia. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  24. ↵
    1. Healthline
    What Is Herd Immunity and Could Help Presvent COVID-19?Stats, Updated 2020 April 2, Available from URL: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/coronaviruses-therapeutics-vaccines. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  25. ↵
    1. Developing MERS and SARS therapeutics and vaccines
    , Available from URL: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/coronaviruses-therapeutics-vaccines.
  26. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    “Immunity passports” in the context of COVID-19, Updated 2020 April 24, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/Anews-room/commentaries/detail/immunity-passports-in-the-context-of-covid-19. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  27. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Global surveillance for human infection with novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/330857/WHO-2019-nCoV-SurveillanceGuidance-2020.3-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  28. ↵
    1. Backer JA,
    2. Klinkenberg D,
    3. Wallinga J
    (2020) Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China, 20-28 January 2020. Euro Surveill 25:2000062.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  29. ↵
    1. Sun J,
    2. He WT,
    3. Wang L,
    4. Lai A,
    5. Ji X,
    6. Zha X,
    7. et al.
    (2020) COVID-19: epidemiology, evolution, and cross-disciplinary perspectives. Trends Mol Med 26:483–495.
    OpenUrl
    1. Chang D,
    2. Lin M,
    3. Wei L,
    4. Xie L,
    5. Zhu G,
    6. Dela Crus CS,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus infections involving 13 patients outside Wuhan, China. JAMA 323:1092–1093.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Chen N,
    2. Zhou M,
    3. Dong X,
    4. Qu J,
    5. Gong F,
    6. Han Y,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 395:507–513.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  32. ↵
    1. Shen K,
    2. Yang Y
    (2020) Diagnosis, and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: a pressing issue. World J Pediatrics 16:219–221.
    OpenUrl
  33. ↵
    1. Jin JM,
    2. Bai P,
    3. He W,
    4. Wu F,
    5. Liu XF,
    6. Han DM,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Gender differences in patients with COVID-19: focus on severity and mortality. Front Public Health 8:152.
    OpenUrl
  34. ↵
    1. Chen H,
    2. Guo J,
    3. Wang C,
    4. Luo F,
    5. Yu X,
    6. Wei Zhang W,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet 395:809–815.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  35. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    WHO statement: Tobacco use and COVID-19, Upadtes 2020 May 11. Accessed 2020 August 16, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/11-05-2020-who-statement-tobacco-use-and-covid-19.
  36. ↵
    1. Phan LT,
    2. Nguyen TV,
    3. Luong QC,
    4. Nguyen TV,
    5. Nguyen HT,
    6. Le HQ,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Importation and human-to-human transmission of a Novel Coronavirus in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 382:872–874.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  37. ↵
    1. Wang C,
    2. Horby PW,
    3. Hayden FG,
    4. Gao GF
    (2020) A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 395:470–473.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  38. ↵
    1. Harapan H,
    2. Itoh N,
    3. Yufikae A,
    4. Winardi W,
    5. Keam S,
    6. Te H,
    7. et al.
    (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A literature review. J Infect Public Health 13:667–673.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  39. ↵
    1. Habibzadeh P,
    2. Stoneman EK
    (2020) The Novel Coronavirus: A Bird's Eye View. Int J Occup Environ Med 11:65–71.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  40. ↵
    1. Zaim S,
    2. Chong JH,
    3. Sankaranarayanan V,
    4. Harkyc A
    (2020) COVID-19 and multi-organ response. Curr Probl Cardiol 8:100618.
    OpenUrl
  41. ↵
    1. Ministry of Health
    MOH Publications: COVID-19 Guidelines, Updated 2020 September 28, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/MediaCenter/Publications/Pages/covid19.aspx. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  42. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report - 12, Updated 2020 February 1, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200201-sitrep-12-ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=273c5d35_2. accessed 2020 August 16.
  43. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    WHO Timeline - COVID-19, Updated 2020 June 29, https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  44. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    WHO announces COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic, Updated 2020 December 3, Available from URL: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/news/news/2020/3/who-announces-covid-19-outbreak-a-pandemic. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  45. ↵
    1. Ministry of Health
    “COVID 19 Dashboard: Saudi Arabia”. Archived from the original on August 2020, Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://covid19.moh.gov.sa/. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  46. ↵
    1. Alsofayan YM,
    2. Althunayyan SM,
    3. Khan AA,
    4. Hakawi AM,
    5. Assiri AM
    (2020) Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia: A national retrospective study. J Infect Public Health 13:920–925.
    OpenUrl
  47. ↵
    1. WorldOMeter
    Saudi Arabia Coronavirus Cases, Updated 2020 October 28, Available from URL: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/saudi-arabia/. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  48. ↵
    1. Health statistical yearbook
    (2019) Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Health, Updated 2020 October 28, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/Statistics/book/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  49. ↵
    1. English Al Arabia. ICU COVID-19, extra beds in KSA
    , Updated 2020 July 5, Available from URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/en/coronavirus/2020/07/05/Coronavirus-Saudi-Arabia-adds-2-199-ICU-beds-within-90-days-across-Kingdom. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  50. ↵
    1. Gulf News. Field hospitals in KSA
    , Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/covid-19-500-bed-field-hospital-opens-in-jeddah-saudi-arabia-1.71928438. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  51. ↵
    1. Hollander JE,
    2. Carr BG
    (2020) Virtually perfect? Telemedicine for covid-19. N Engl J Med 382:1679–1681.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  52. ↵
    1. Moazzami B,
    2. Razavi-Khorasani N,
    3. Dooghaie Moghadam A,
    4. Farokhi E,
    5. Rezaei N
    (2020) COVID-19 and telemedicine: Immediate action required for maintaining healthcare providers well-being. J Clin Virol 126:104345.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  53. ↵
    1. Weqay,
    2. Saudi Center for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease Guidelines
    , Updated 2020 May, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/Ministry/MediaCenter/Publications/Documents/Coronavirus-Disease-2019-Guidelines-v1.2.pdf. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  54. ↵
    1. Ministry of Health. Public Health. Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)
    , Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/HealthAwareness/EducationalContent/PublicHealth/Pages/corona.aspx. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  55. ↵
    1. World Health Organizatin. Critical preparedness readiness, and response actions for COVID-19
    , Updated 2020 June 24. Accessed 2020 August 16, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/critical-preparedness-readiness-and-response-actions-for-covid-19.
  56. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Non-pharmaceutical public health measures for mitigating the risk and impact of epidemic and pandemic influenza, Updated 2020 October. Accessed 2020 Augugst 16, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/influenza/publications/public_health_measures/publication/en/.
  57. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Key planning recommendations for mass gatherings in the context of the current COVID-19 outbreak, Updated 2020 May 29, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/10665-332235. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  58. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Considerations for school-related public health measures in the context of COVID-19 (Interim Guidance) ([Updated 2020 September 14, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/considerations-for-school-related-public-health-measuresin-the-context-of-covid-19. Accessed 2020 Augugst 16.
  59. ↵
    1. Arab News
    Saudi education directorate launches remote teaching award, Updated 2020 April 6 2020, Available from URL: https://www.arabnews.com/node/1653771/saudi-arabia. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  60. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Country &Technical Guidance - Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: points of entry and mass gatherings, Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance. Accessed August 16.
  61. ↵
    1. Saudi Press Agency
    Ministry of Hajj and Umrah, Updated 2020 June 22, Available from URL: https://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang=en&newsid=2100951. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  62. ↵
    1. Kampf G,
    2. Todt D,
    3. Pfaender S,
    4. Steinmann E
    (2020) Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. J Hosp Infect 104:246–251.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  63. ↵
    1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
    Considerations for infection prevention and control measures on public transport in the context of COVID-19, Updated 2020 April 29. Accessed 2020 August 16, Available from URL: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/covid-19-prevention-and-control-measures-public-transport.
  64. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Infection prevention and control for long-term care facilities in the context of COVID-19, Updated 2020 January 30, Available from URL: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331508/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_long_term_care-2020.1-eng.pdf. Accessed 2020 August 30.
  65. ↵
    1. Hassanian-Moghaddam H,
    2. Zamani N,
    3. Kolahi A
    (2020) COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare providers'contamination and death: an international view. Crit Care 208:1–2.
    OpenUrl
  66. ↵
    1. Lo D
    (2020) COVID-19: protecting health-care workers. Lancet 395:922.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  67. ↵
    1. Bartoszko JJ,
    2. Farooqi MA,
    3. Alhazzani W,
    4. Loeb M
    (2020) Medical Masks vs N95 respirators for preventing COVID-19 in healthcare workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 14:365–373.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  68. ↵
    1. MacIntyre CR,
    2. Seale H,
    3. Dung T,
    4. Hien NT,
    5. Nga P,
    6. Chughta A,
    7. et al.
    (2015) A cluster randomized trial of cloth masks compared with medical masks in healthcare workers. BMJ Open 5:e006577.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  69. ↵
    1. Ministry of Health. Active Surveillance Detects COVID-19 Cases in Makkah and Madina
    , Updated 2020 April 18, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/MediaCenter/News/Pages/News-2020-04-18-002.aspx. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  70. ↵
    1. World Health Organization
    Contact tracing in the context of COVID-19, Updated 2020 May 10, Available from URL: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/contact-tracing-in-the-context-of-covid-19. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  71. ↵
    1. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
    COVID-19 Guideline for Occupational Health, Updated 2020, Available from URL: https://acoem.org/. Accessed 2020 August 16.
  72. ↵
    1. Ministry of Health
    Daytime Curfew to be Relaxed from Next Thursday, COVID-19 Monitoring Committee Says, Updated 2020 May 26, Available from URL: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/MediaCenter/News/Pages/News-2020-05-26-001.aspx. Accessed 2020 August 16.
Back to top

In this issue

Print
Download PDF
Email Article
Citation Tools
Bookmark this article

Jump to section

Keywords