Review ArticleReview Article
Open Access

Diagnosis and management of childhood sleep-disordered breathing

Clinical approach

Abdullah Al-Shamrani and Adel S. Alharbi
Saudi Medical Journal September 2020, 41 (9) 916-929; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15537/smj.2020.9.25262

References

  1. ↵
    1. Carole L,
    2. Marcus,
    3. Gerald M,
    4. Loughlin
    (1996) Obstructive sleep apnea in children. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 3:23–28.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  2. ↵
    1. Section on Pediatric Pulmonology, Subcommittee on Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome. American Academy of Pediatrics. Clinical practice guideline:diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome
    (2002) Pediatrics 109:704–712.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  3. ↵
    1. Hill W
    (1889) On some causes of backwardness and stupidity in children:And the relife of these symptoms in some instances by naso-pharyngeal scarifications. Br Med J 2:711–712.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  4. ↵
    1. Guilleminault C,
    2. Eldridge FL,
    3. Dement WC
    (1973) Insomnia with sleep apnea:a new syndrome. Science 181:856–858.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  5. ↵
    1. Guilleminault C,
    2. Eldridge FL,
    3. Simmons FB,
    4. Dement WC
    (1976) Sleep apnea in eight children. Pediatrics 58:23–30.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  6. ↵
    1. Kheirandish-Gozal L,
    2. Gozal D
    (2012) A comprehensive clinical guide to evaluation and treatment, Sleep disordered breathing in children (Springer Science, New York (NY)).
  7. ↵
    1. Ehab Dayyat Leila
    (2007) Kheirandish-Gozal, and David Gozal, Childhood obstructive sleep apnea:One or two distinct disease entities? Sleep Med Clin 2:433–444.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  8. ↵
    1. Capdevila OS,
    2. Kheirandish-Gozal L,
    3. Dayyat E,
    4. Gozal D
    (2008) Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea:complications, management, and long-term outcomes. Proc Am Thorac Soc 5:274–282.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  9. ↵
    1. Marcus CL,
    2. Brooks LJ,
    3. Draper KA,
    4. Gozal D,
    5. Halbower AC,
    6. Jones J,
    7. et al.
    (2012) Diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics 130:714–755.
    OpenUrl
  10. ↵
    1. Savini S,
    2. Ciorba A,
    3. Bianchini C,
    4. Stomeo F,
    5. Corazzi V,
    6. Vicini C,
    7. Pelucchi S
    (2019) Assessment of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in children:an update. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital 39:289–297.
    OpenUrl
  11. ↵
    1. Ferreira AM,
    2. Clemente V,
    3. Gozal D,
    4. et al.
    (2000) Snoring in Portuguese primary school children. Pediatrics 106:64.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. O'Brien LM,
    2. Holbrook CR,
    3. Mervis CB,
    4. et al.
    (2003) Sleep and neuro behavioral characteristics in 5-7-year old hyperactive children. Pediatrics 111:554–563.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  13. ↵
    1. Urschitz MS,
    2. Guenther A,
    3. Eitner S,
    4. et al.
    (2004) Risk factors and natural history of habitual snoring. Chest 126:790–800.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  14. ↵
    1. Ersu R,
    2. Arman AR,
    3. Save D,
    4. et al.
    (2004) Prevalence of snoring and symptoms of sleep-disordered breathing in primary school children in Istanbul. Chest 126:19–24.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    1. Rosen CL,
    2. Larkin EK,
    3. Kirchner HL,
    4. et al.
    (2003) Prevalence and risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in 8- to 11-year-old children:association with race and prematurity. J Pediatr 142:383–389.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  16. ↵
    1. Bixler EO,
    2. Vgontzas AN,
    3. Lin HM,
    4. et al.
    (2009) sleep disordered breathing in children in a general population sample:prevalence and risk factors. Sleep 32:731–736.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  17. ↵
    1. Li AM,
    2. So HK,
    3. Au CT,
    4. et al.
    (2010) Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome in Chinese children:a two-phase community study. Thorax 65:991–997.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  18. ↵
    1. Marcus CL,
    2. Keens TG,
    3. Bautista DB,
    4. von Pechmann WS,
    5. Ward SL
    (1991) Obstructive sleep apnea in children with Down syndrome. Pediatrics 88:132–139.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  19. ↵
    1. Stebbens VA,
    2. Dennis J,
    3. Samuels MP,
    4. et al.
    (1991) sleep related upper airway obstruction in a cohort's with Down syndrome. Arch Dis Child 66:1333–1338.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  20. ↵
    1. Kerr SL,
    2. Kohrman MH
    (1994) Polysomnographic abnormalities in Duchene muscular dystrophy. J Child Neurol 9:332–334.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  21. ↵
    1. Kotagal S,
    2. Gibbons VP,
    3. Stith JA
    (1994) Sleep abnormalities in patient with severe cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 36:304–311.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  22. ↵
    1. Kalra M,
    2. Inge T,
    3. Garcia V,
    4. et al.
    (2005) Obstructive sleep apnea in extremely overweight adolescents undergoing bariatric surgery. Obes Res 13:1175–1179.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  23. ↵
    1. Katz ES,
    2. D'Ambrosio CM
    (2008) Pathophysiology of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc 5:253–262.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  24. ↵
    1. Remmers JE,
    2. deGroot WJ,
    3. Sauerland EK,
    4. Anch AM
    (1978) Pathogenesis of upper airway occlusion during sleep. J Appl Physiol 44:931–938.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  25. ↵
    1. Laura M,
    2. Sterni David E
    (2003) Tunkel, obstructive sleep apnea in children an update. Pediatr N Clinc Am 50:427–443.
    OpenUrl
  26. ↵
    1. Wang J,
    2. Zhao Y,
    3. Yang W,
    4. Shen T,
    5. Xue P,
    6. Yan X,
    7. et al.
    (2019) Correlations between obstructive sleep apnea and adenotonsillar hypertrophy in children of different weight status. Sci Rep 9:11455.
    OpenUrl
  27. ↵
    1. Redline S,
    2. Tishler PV,
    3. Schluchter M,
    4. et al.
    (1999) Risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in children. Associations with obesity, race, and respiratory problems. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1527–1532.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  28. ↵
    1. Rosen CL
    (1999) Clinical features of obstructive sleep apnea hypoventilation syndrome in otherwise healthy children. Pediatr Pulmonol 27:403–409.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  29. ↵
    1. Cinar U,
    2. Vural C,
    3. Cakir B,
    4. et al.
    (2001) Nocturnal enuresis and upper airway obstruction. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 59:115–118.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  30. ↵
    1. Landau YE,
    2. Sari Greenberg-Dotan,
    3. et al.
    (2012) Impaired behavioral and neurocognitive function in preschool children with obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatr Pulmonol 47:180–188.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Katz ES,
    2. Mitchell RB,
    3. D'Ambrosio CM
    (2012) Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Infants. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 185:805–816.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  32. ↵
    1. Guilleminault C,
    2. Korobkin R,
    3. Winkle R
    (1981) A review of 50 children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Lung 159:275–287.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  33. ↵
    1. Andersen IG,
    2. Holm JC,
    3. Homøe P
    (2016) Obstructive sleep apnea in obese children and adolescents, treatment methods and outcome of treatment - A systematic review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 87:190–197.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  34. ↵
    1. Lam DJ,
    2. Jensen CC,
    3. Mueller BA,
    4. Starr JR,
    5. Cunningham ML,
    6. Weaver EM
    (2010) Pediatric sleep apnea and craniofacial anomalies:a population-based case-control study. Laryngoscope 120:2098–2105.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  35. ↵
    1. Li AM,
    2. Wong E,
    3. Kew J,
    4. Hui S,
    5. Fok TF
    (2002) Use of tonsil size in the evaluation of obstructive sleep apnoea. Arch Dis Child 87:156–159.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  36. ↵
    1. Brooks LJ,
    2. Stephens BM,
    3. Bacevice AM
    (1998) Adenoid size is related to severity but not the number of episodes of obstructive apnea in children. J Pediatr 132:682–686.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  37. ↵
    1. Carroll JL,
    2. McColley SA,
    3. Marcus CL,
    4. et al.
    (1995) Inability of clinical history to distinguish primary snoring from obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children. Chest 108:610–618.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  38. ↵
    1. Goldstein NA,
    2. Sculerati N,
    3. Walsleben JA,
    4. et al.
    (1994) Clinical diagnosis of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea validated by polysomnography. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 111:611–617.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  39. ↵
    1. Aurora RN,
    2. Zak RS,
    3. Karippot A,
    4. Lamm CI,
    5. Morgenthaler TI,
    6. Auerbach SH,
    7. et al.
    (2011) Practice parameters for the respiratory indications for polysomnography in children. Sleep 34:379–388.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  40. ↵
    1. American Academy of Sleep Medicine
    (2014) International Classification of Sleep Disorders –Third Edition (ICSD-3) (Online) (American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Darien (IL)), 3rd ed.
  41. ↵
    1. Marcus CL,
    2. Omlin KJ,
    3. Basinki DJ,
    4. Bailey SL,
    5. Rachal AB,
    6. Von Pechmann WS,
    7. et al.
    (1992) Normal polysomnographic values for children and adolescents. Am Rev Respir Dis 146:1235–1239.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  42. ↵
    1. Uliel S,
    2. Tauman R,
    3. Greenfeld M,
    4. Sivan Y
    (2004) Normal polysomnographic respiratory values in children and adolescents. Chest 125:872–878.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  43. ↵
    1. Kapoor M,
    2. Greenough G
    (2015) Home sleep tests for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). J Am Board Fam Med 28:504–509.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  44. ↵
    1. Rosen IM,
    2. Kirsch DB,
    3. Chervin RD,
    4. Carden KA,
    5. Ramar K,
    6. Aurora RN,
    7. et al.
    (2017) Clinical use of a home sleep apnea test:An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Position Statement. J Clin Sleep Med 13:1205–1207.
    OpenUrl
  45. ↵
    1. Dehlink E,
    2. Tan HL
    (2016) Update on paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea. J Thorac Dis 8:224–235.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  46. ↵
    1. Nixon GM,
    2. Brouillette RT
    (2002) Diagnostic techniques for obstructive sleep apnoea:is polysomnography necessary? Paediatr Respir Rev 3:18–24.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  47. ↵
    1. Brouillette RT,
    2. Morielli A,
    3. Leimanis A,
    4. Waters KA,
    5. Luciano R,
    6. Ducharme FM
    (2000) Nocturnal pulse oximetry as an abbreviated testing modality for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea, McGill University, Montreal. Pediatrics 105:405–412.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  48. ↵
    1. Saeed MM,
    2. Keens TG,
    3. Stabile MW,
    4. Bolokowicz J,
    5. Davidson Ward SL
    (2000) Should children with suspected obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and normal nap sleep studies have overnight sleep studies? Chest 118:360–365.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  49. ↵
    1. Lamm C,
    2. Mandeli J,
    3. Kattan M
    (1999) Evaluation of home audiotapes as an abbreviated test for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) in children. Pediatr Pulmonol 27:267–272.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  50. ↵
    1. Chervin RD,
    2. Hedger K,
    3. Dillon JE,
    4. Pituch KJ
    (2000) Pediatric sleep questionnaire (PSQ):validity and reliability of scales for sleep-disordered breathing, snoring, sleepiness, and behavioral problems. Sleep Med 1:21–31.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  51. ↵
    1. Chan BC,
    2. Galland BC,
    3. Smith LA,
    4. Maessen SE,
    5. Haszard JJ,
    6. Schaughency EA,
    7. et al.
    (2019) Can sleep questionnaires predict outcome in children undergoing adenotonsillectomy for sleep disordered breathing? Australian Journal of Otolaryngology 2:6.
    OpenUrl
  52. ↵
    1. Slaats MA,
    2. Van Hoorenbeeck K,
    3. Van Eyck A,
    4. Vos WG,
    5. De Backer JW,
    6. Boudewyns A,
    7. et al.
    (2015) Upper airway imaging in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Med Rev 21:59–71.
    OpenUrl
  53. ↵
    1. Fleck RJ,
    2. Shott SR,
    3. Mahmoud M,
    4. Ishman SL,
    5. Amin RS,
    6. Donnelly LF
    (2018) Magnetic resonance imaging of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Pediatr Radiol 48:1223–1233.
    OpenUrl
  54. ↵
    1. Campanini A,
    2. Canzi P,
    3. De Vito A,
    4. Dallan I,
    5. Montevecchi F,
    6. Vicini C
    (2010) Awake versus sleep endoscopy:personal experience in 250 OSAHS patients. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital 30:73–77.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  55. ↵
    1. Friedman NR,
    2. Parikh SR,
    3. Ishman SL,
    4. Ruiz AG,
    5. El-Hakim H,
    6. Ulualp SO,
    7. et al.
    (2017) The current state of pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy. Laryngoscope 127:266–272.
    OpenUrl
  56. ↵
    1. Xu H,
    2. Li X,
    3. Zheng X,
    4. Xia Y,
    5. Fu Y,
    6. Li X,
    7. et al.
    (2018) Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea is associated with changes in the oral microbiome and urinary metabolomics profile:A pilot study. J Clin Sleep Med 14:1559–1567.
    OpenUrl
  57. ↵
    1. Amin R,
    2. Somers VK,
    3. McConnell K,
    4. et al.
    (2008) Activity adjusted 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure and cardiac remodeling in children with sleep disordered breathing. Hypertension 5:84–91.
    OpenUrl
  58. ↵
    1. Kirk V,
    2. Midgley J,
    3. Giuffre M,
    4. Ronksley P,
    5. Nettel-Aguirre A,
    6. Al-Shamrani A
    (2010) Hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea in Caucasian children. World J Cardiol 2:251–256.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  59. ↵
    1. Evans CA,
    2. Selvadurai H,
    3. Baur LA,
    4. Waters KA
    (2014) Effects of obstructive sleep apnea and obesity on exercise function in children. Sleep 37:1103–1110.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  60. ↵
    1. Amin RS,
    2. Kimball TR,
    3. Bean JA,
    4. Jeffries JL,
    5. Willging JP,
    6. Cotton RT,
    7. et al.
    (2002) Left ventricular hypertrophy and abnormal ventricular geometry in children and adolescents with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:1395–1399.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  61. ↵
    1. Gozal D,
    2. Kheirandish-Gozal L,
    3. Serpero LD,
    4. Sans Capdevila O,
    5. Dayyat E
    (2007) Obstructive sleep apnea and endothelial function in school aged nonobese children:effect of adenotonsillectomy. Circulation 116:2307–2314.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  62. ↵
    1. Quante M,
    2. Wang R,
    3. Weng J,
    4. Rosen CL,
    5. Amin R,
    6. Garetz SL,
    7. et al.
    (2015) The effect of adenotonsillectomy for childhood sleep apnea on cardiometabolic measures. Sleep 38:1395–1403.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  63. ↵
    1. Redline S,
    2. Amin R,
    3. Beebe D,
    4. Chervin RD,
    5. Garetz SL,
    6. Giordani B,
    7. et al.
    (2011) The Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT):a Standard Surgical Procedure in a Pediatric Population. Sleep 34:1509–1517.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  64. ↵
    1. Hinkle J,
    2. Connolly HV,
    3. Adams HR,
    4. Lande MB
    (2018) Severe obstructive sleep apnea in children with elevated blood pressure. J Am Soc Hypertens 12:204–210.
    OpenUrl
  65. ↵
    1. Späth-Schwalbe E,
    2. Gofferje M,
    3. Kern W,
    4. Born J,
    5. Fehm HL
    (1991) Sleep disruption alters nocturnal ACTH and cortisol secretory patterns. Biol Psychiatry 29:575–584.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  66. ↵
    1. Marcus CL,
    2. Greene MG,
    3. Carroll JL
    (1998) Blood pressure in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157(4 Pt 1):1098–1103.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  67. ↵
    1. Sardon O,
    2. Corcuera P,
    3. Castaños L,
    4. Rezola E,
    5. Eizmendi M,
    6. Izquierdo MA,
    7. et al.
    (2017) Severe sleep obstructive apnea in children. Can respiratory polygraphy estimate pulmonary pressure and right heart function? European Respiratory Journal 50:3336.
    OpenUrl
  68. ↵
    1. Lee PC,
    2. Hwang B,
    3. Soong WJ,
    4. Meng CC
    (2012) The specific characteristics in children with obstructive sleep apnea and cor pulmonale. Scientific World Journal 2012:757283.
    OpenUrl
  69. ↵
    1. Smith DL,
    2. Gozal D,
    3. Hunter SJ,
    4. Philby MF,
    5. Kaylegian J,
    6. Kheirandish-Gozal L
    (2016) Impact of sleep disordered breathing on behaviour among elementary school-aged children:a cross-sectional analysis of a large community-based sample. Eur Respir J 48:1631–1639.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  70. ↵
    1. Urschitz MS,
    2. Eitner S,
    3. Guenther A,
    4. Eggebrecht E,
    5. Wolff J,
    6. Urschitz-Duprat PM,
    7. et al.
    (2004) Habitual snoring, intermittent hypoxia, and impaired behavior in primary school children. Pediatrics 114:1041–1048.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Yewen Shi,
    2. Huanan Luo,
    3. Haiqin Liu,
    4. Jin Hou,
    5. et al.
    (2019) International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 16:38–42.
    OpenUrl
  72. ↵
    1. Bourke R,
    2. Anderson V,
    3. Yang JS,
    4. et al.
    (2011) Cognitive and academic functions are impaired in children with all severities of sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep Med 12:489–96.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    1. O'Brien LM,
    2. Goal D
    (2004) Sleep in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Minerva Pediatr 56:585–601.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  74. ↵
    1. Montgomery-Downs HE,
    2. Crabtree VM,
    3. Gozal D
    (2005) Cognition, sleep and respiration in at-risk children treated for obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 25:336–342.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  75. ↵
    1. Bass JL,
    2. Corwin M,
    3. Gozal D,
    4. Moore C,
    5. Nishida H,
    6. Parker S,
    7. et al.
    (2004) The effect of chronic or intermittent hypoxia on cognition in childhood:a review of the evidence. Pediatrics 114:805–816.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  76. ↵
    1. Halbower AC,
    2. Degaonkar M,
    3. Barker PB,
    4. Earley CJ,
    5. Marcus CL,
    6. Smith PL,
    7. et al.
    (2006) Childhood obstructive sleep apnea associates with neuropsychological deficits and neuronal brain injury. PLoS Med 3:301.
    OpenUrl
  77. ↵
    1. Datar A,
    2. Sturm R,
    3. Magnabosco JL
    (2004) Childhood overweight and academic performance:national study of kindergartners and first-graders. Obes Res 12:58–68.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  78. ↵
    1. Li X
    (1995) A study of intelligence and personality in children with simple obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19:355–357.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  79. ↵
    1. Ahlqvist-Rastad J,
    2. Hultcrantz E,
    3. Melander H,
    4. Svanholm H
    (1992) Body growth in relation to tonsillar enlargement and tonsillectomy. Int J Pediatr Otolaryngol 24:55–56.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  80. ↵
    1. Smith DF,
    2. Amin RS
    (2019) OSA and cardiovascular risk in pediatrics. Chest 156:402–413.
    OpenUrl
  81. ↵
    1. Roemmich JN,
    2. Barkley JE,
    3. D'Andrea L,
    4. Nikova M,
    5. Rogol AD,
    6. Carskadon MA,
    7. et al.
    (2006) Increases in overweight after adenotonsillectomy in overweight children with obstructive sleep-disordered breathing are associated with decreases in motor activity and hyperactivity. Pediatrics 117:200–208.
    OpenUrl
  82. ↵
    1. Chay OM,
    2. Goh A,
    3. Abisheganaden J,
    4. Tang J,
    5. Lim WH,
    6. Chan YH,
    7. et al.
    (2000) Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in obese Singapore children. Pediatr Pulmonol 29:284–290.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  83. ↵
    1. Verhulst SL,
    2. Van Gaal L,
    3. De Backer W,
    4. Desager K
    (2008) The prevalence, anatomical correlates and treatment of sleep-disordered breathing in obese children and adolescents. Sleep Med Rev 12:339–346.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  84. ↵
    1. Rosen CL
    (1999) Clinical features of obstructive sleep apnea hypoventilation syndrome in otherwise healthy children. Pediatr Pulmonol 27:403–409.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  85. ↵
    1. Friedlander SL,
    2. Larkin EK,
    3. Rosen CL,
    4. Palermo TM,
    5. Redline S
    (2003) Decreased quality of life associated with obesity in school-aged children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 157:1206–1211.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  86. ↵
    1. Kalra M,
    2. Inge T,
    3. Garcia V,
    4. Daniels S,
    5. Lawson L,
    6. Curti R,
    7. Cohen A,
    8. Amin R
    (2005) Obstructive sleep apnea in extremely overweight adolescents undergoing bariatric surgery. Obesity Research 13:1175–1179.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  87. ↵
    1. Tresaco B,
    2. Bueno G,
    3. Pineda I,
    4. Moreno LA,
    5. Garagorri JM,
    6. Bueno M
    (2005) Homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) index cut-off values to identify the metabolic syndrome in children. J Physiol Biochem 61:381–388.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  88. ↵
    1. Weiss R,
    2. Kaufman FR
    (2008) Metabolic complications of childhood obesity. Diabetes Care 2:310–316.
    OpenUrl
  89. ↵
    1. Punjabi NM,
    2. Sorkin JD,
    3. Katzel LI,
    4. Goldberg AP,
    5. Schwartz AR,
    6. Smith PL
    (2002) Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:677–682.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  90. ↵
    1. Tauman R,
    2. O'Brien LM,
    3. Ivanenko A,
    4. Gozal D
    (2005) Obesity rather than severity of sleep-disordered breathing as the major determinant of insulin resistance and altered lipidemia in snoring children. Pediatrics 116:66–73.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  91. ↵
    1. Su MS,
    2. Xu L,
    3. Pan WF,
    4. Li CC
    (2019) al Current perspectives on the correlation of nocturnal enuresis with obstructive sleep apnea in children. World J Pediatr 15:109–116.
    OpenUrl
  92. ↵
    1. Jeyakumar A,
    2. Rahman SI,
    3. Armbrecht ES,
    4. Mitchell R
    (2012) The association between sleep-disordered breathing and enuresis in children. Laryngoscope 122:1873–1877.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  93. ↵
    1. Mehta B,
    2. Waters K,
    3. Fitzgerald D,
    4. Badawi N
    (2020) Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in neonates and implications for its long-term impact. Paediatr Respir Rev 34:3–8.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  94. ↵
    1. Owens RL,
    2. Gold KA,
    3. Gozal D,
    4. Peppard PE,
    5. Jun JC,
    6. Dannenberg AJ,
    7. et al.
    (2016) Sleep and Breathing …and Cancer? Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 9:821–827.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  95. ↵
    1. Sillaha A,
    2. Nathaniel F,
    3. Watson NF,
    4. Gozal D,
    5. Phipps AI
    (2019) Obstructive sleep apnea severity and subsequent risk for cancer incidence. Prev Med Rep 15:100886.
    OpenUrl
  96. ↵
    1. Santamaria-Martos F,
    2. Benítez I,
    3. Girón C,
    4. Barbé F,
    5. Martínez-García MA,
    6. Hernández L,
    7. et al.
    (2018) Biomarkers of carcinogenesis and tumour growth in patients with cutaneous melanoma and obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 51:1701885.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  97. ↵
    1. Tarasiuk A,
    2. Reuveni H
    (2013) The economic impact of obstructive sleep apnea. Curr Opin Pulm Med 19:639–644.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  98. ↵
    1. Tarasiuk A,
    2. Greenberg-Dotan S,
    3. Simon-Tuval T,
    4. et al.
    (2007) Elevated morbidity and healthcare use in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175:55–51.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  99. ↵
    1. Brietzke SE,
    2. Gallagher D
    (2006) The effectiveness of tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in the treatment of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome:a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 134:979–984.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  100. ↵
    1. Rosen GM,
    2. Muckle RP,
    3. Mahowald MW,
    4. Goding GS,
    5. Ullevig C
    (1994) Postoperative respiratory compromise in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome:can it be anticipated? Pediatrics 93:784–788.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  101. ↵
    1. Wilson K,
    2. Lakheeram I,
    3. Morielli A,
    4. Brouillette R,
    5. Brown K
    (2002) Can assessment for obstructive sleep apnea help predict postadenotonsillectomy respiratory complications? Anesthesiology 96:313–322.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  102. ↵
    1. Biavati MJ,
    2. Manning SC,
    3. Phillips DL
    (1997) Predictive factors for respiratory complications after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123:517–521.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  103. ↵
    1. Baugh RF,
    2. Archer SM,
    3. Mitchell RB,
    4. Rosenfeld RM,
    5. Amin R,
    6. Burns JJ,
    7. et al.
    (2011) Clinical Practice Guideline:Tonsillectomy in Children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 144:1–30.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  104. ↵
    1. Domany KA,
    2. Dana E,
    3. Tauman R,
    4. Gut G,
    5. Greenfeld M,
    6. Yakir BE
    (2016) Adenoidectomy for obstructive sleep apnea in children. Clin Sleep Med 12:1285–1291.
    OpenUrl
  105. ↵
    1. Sullivan CE,
    2. Berthon-Jones M,
    3. Issa FG
    (1983) Remission of severe obesity-hypoventilation syndrome after short-term treatment during sleep with nasal continuous positive airway pressure. American Review of Respiratory Disease 128:177–181.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  106. ↵
    1. Booth C,
    2. Premkumar MH,
    3. Yannoulis A,
    4. et al.
    (2006) Sustainable use of continuous positive airway pressure in extremely preterm infants during the first week after delivery. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 91:398–402.
    OpenUrl
  107. ↵
    1. Chadha NK,
    2. Zhang L,
    3. Mendoza-Sassi RA,
    4. César JA
    (2009) Using nasal steroids to treat nasal obstruction caused by adenoid hypertrophy:does it work? Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 140:139–147.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  108. ↵
    1. Goldbart AD,
    2. Greenberg-Dotan S,
    3. Tal A
    (2012) Montelukast for children with obstructive sleep apnea:a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pediatrics 130:575–580.
    OpenUrl
  109. ↵
    1. Glockler-Lauf SD,
    2. Finkelstein Y,
    3. Zhu J,
    4. Feldman LY,
    5. To T
    (2019) Montelukast and neuropsychiatric events in children with asthma:A nested case-control study. J Pediatr 209:176–182.
    OpenUrl
  110. ↵
    1. Kuhle S,
    2. Hoffmann DU,
    3. Mitra S,
    4. Urschitz MS
    (2020) Anti-inflammatory medications for obstructive sleep apnoea in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD007074.
    OpenUrl
  111. ↵
    1. Kheirandish L,
    2. Goldbart AD,
    3. Gozal D
    (2006) Intranasal steroids and oral leukotriene modifier therapy in residual sleep-disordered breathing after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children. Pediatrics 117:61–66.
    OpenUrl
  112. ↵
    1. Don DM,
    2. Goldstein NA,
    3. Crockett DM,
    4. Ward SD
    (2005) Antimicrobial therapy for children with adenotonsillar hypertrophy and obstructive sleep apnea:a prospective randomized trial comparing azithromycin vs placebo. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 133:562–568.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  113. ↵
    1. Pirelli P,
    2. Saponara M,
    3. Guilleminault C
    (2004) Rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep 27:761–766.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  114. ↵
    1. Huang YS,
    2. Guilleminault C
    (2017) Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea:Where do we stand? Adv Otorhinolaryngol 80:136–144.
    OpenUrl
  115. ↵
    1. Camacho M,
    2. Noller MW,
    3. Zaghi S,
    4. Reckley LK,
    5. Fernandez-Salvador C,
    6. Ho E,
    7. et al.
    (2017) Tongue surgeries for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea:a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 274:2981–2990.
    OpenUrl
Back to top

In this issue

Print
Download PDF
Email Article
Citation Tools
Bookmark this article

Jump to section

Keywords