Seroprevalence of community-acquired atypical bacterial pneumonia among adult COVID-19 patients from a single center in Al Madinah Al Munawarah, Saudi Arabia: A retrospective cohort study

Sari T. Alhoufie; Nadir A. Ibrahim; Naif H. Alsharif; Khalid O. Alfarouk; Hatim M. Makhdoom; Khaled R. Aljabri; Sayed H. Saeed; Adnan A. Khoumaeys; Yahya A. Almutawif; Mustafa A. Najim; Hamza M. Ali; Alanoud A. Aljifri; Ali M. Kheyami; Areej A. Alhazmi

doi:10.15537/smj.2022.43.9.20220379

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Pathogenesis and management of COVID-19. J Xenobiot 2021; 11: 77–93.
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The clinical characteristics of secondary infections of lower respiratory tract in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chin J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 2: 270–274.
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1. Arabi YM,
2. Deeb AM,
3. Al-Hameed F,
4. Mandourah Y,
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6. Sindi AA, et al.
Macrolides in critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Int J Infect Dis 2019; 81: 184–190.
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1. Zhang G,
2. Hu C,
3. Luo L,
4. Fang F,
5. Chen Y,
6. Li J, et al.
Clinical features and short-term outcomes of 221 patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. J Clin Virol 2020; 127: 104364.
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1. Huttner BD,
2. Catho G,
3. Pano-Pardo JR,
4. Pulcini C,
5. Schouten J.
COVID-19: don’t neglect antimicrobial stewardship principles! Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26: 808–810.
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9.↵
1. Zhu X,
2. Ge Y,
3. Wu T,
4. Zhao K,
5. Chen Y,
6. Wu B, et al.
Co-infection with respiratory pathogens among COVID-2019 cases. Virus Res 2020; 285: 198005.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed
10.↵
1. Yang X,
2. Yu Y,
3. Xu J,
4. Shu H,
5. Xia J,
6. Liu H, et al.
Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 475–481.
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11.↵
1. Rawson TM,
2. Moore LSP,
3. Zhu N,
4. Ranganathan N,
5. Skolimowska K,
6. Gilchrist M, et al.
Bacterial and fungal coinfection in individuals with coronavirus: a rapid review to support COVID-19 antimicrobial prescribing. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71: 2459–2468.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed
12.↵
1. Søgaard KK,
2. Baettig V,
3. Osthoff M,
4. Marsch S,
5. Leuzinger K,
6. Schweitzer M, et al.
Community-acquired and hospital-acquired respiratory tract infection and bloodstream infection in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. J Intensive Care 2021; 9: 10.
OpenUrl
13.↵
1. Xing Q,
2. Li G,
3. Xing Y,
4. Chen T,
5. Li W,
6. Ni W, et al.
Precautions are needed for COVID-19 patients with coinfection of common respiratory pathogens. [Updated 2020; accessed 2021 July 17]. Available from: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.29.20027698v2
14.↵
1. Lippi G,
2. Cervellin G.
Procalcitonin for diagnosing and monitoring bacterial infections: for or against? Clin Chem Lab Med 2018; 56: 1193–1195.
OpenUrl
15.↵
Worldometer. Saudi Arabia. [Updated 2022; accessed 2021 July 17]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/saudi-arabia/
16.↵
1. Kurashi NY,
2. Al-Hamdan A,
3. Ibrahim EM,
4. Al-Idrissi HY,
5. Al-Bayari TH.
Community acquired acute bacterial and atypical pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. Thorax 1992; 47: 115–118.
OpenUrl Abstract/FREE Full Text
17.↵
1. Asghar AH,
2. Ashshi AM,
3. Azhar EI,
4. Bukhari SZ,
5. Zafar TA,
6. Momenah AM.
Profile of bacterial pneumonia during Hajj. Indian J Med Res 2011; 133: 510–513.
OpenUrl PubMed
18.↵
1. Balkhy HH,
2. Cunningham G,
3. Chew FK,
4. Francis C,
5. Al Nakhli DJ,
6. Almuneef MA, et al.
Hospital- and community-acquired infections: a point prevalence and risk factors survey in a tertiary care center in Saudi Arabia. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 326–333.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed
19.↵
1. Davis B,
2. Rothrock AN,
3. Swetland S,
4. Andris H,
5. Davis P,
6. Rothrock SG.
Viral and atypical respiratory co-infections in COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open 2020; 1: 533–548.
OpenUrl
20.↵
1. Ratnamohan VM,
2. Taylor J,
3. Zeng F,
4. McPhie K,
5. Blyth CC,
6. Adamson S, et al.
Pandemic clinical case definitions are non-specific: multiple respiratory viruses circulating in the early phases of the 2009 influenza pandemic in New South Wales, Australia. Virol J 2014; 11: 113.
OpenUrl PubMed
21.↵
1. Lai CC,
2. Wang CY,
3. Hsueh PR.
Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: the need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents? J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020; 53: 505–512.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed
22.↵
1. Lim WS. Pneumonia-overview
. In: encyclopedia of respiratory medicine (second edition). Elsevier 2022: 185–197.
23.↵
1. Eliakim-Raz N,
2. Robenshtok E,
3. Shefet D,
4. Gafter-Gvili A,
5. Vidal L,
6. Paul M, et al.
Empiric antibiotic coverage of atypical pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 2012: CD004418.
24.↵
1. Eljaaly K,
2. Alshehri S,
3. Aljabri A,
4. Abraham I,
5. Al Mohajer M,
6. Kalil AC, et al.
Clinical failure with and without empiric atypical bacteria coverage in hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17: 385.
OpenUrl
25.↵
1. Linscheid P,
2. Seboek D,
3. Nylen ES,
4. Langer I,
5. Schlatter M,
6. Becker KL, et al.
In vitro and in vivo calcitonin I gene expression in parenchymal cells: a novel product of human adipose tissue. Endocrinology 2003; 144: 5578–5584.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
26.↵
1. May M,
2. Chang M,
3. Dietz D,
4. Shoucri S,
5. Laracy J,
6. Sobieszczyk ME, et al.
Limited utility of procalcitonin in identifying community-associated bacterial infections in patients presenting with coronavirus disease 2019. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65: e02167–e02120.
OpenUrl
27.↵
1. Alosaimi B,
2. Naeem A,
3. Hamed ME,
4. Alkadi HS,
5. Alanazi T,
6. Al Rehily SS, et al.
Influenza co-infection associated with severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. Virol J 2021; 18: 127.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

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Keywords

[1] 1.↵
Alfarouk KO,
AlHoufie STS,
Ahmed SBM,
Shabana M,
Ahmed A,
Alqahtani SS, et al.
Pathogenesis and management of COVID-19. J Xenobiot 2021; 11: 77–93.
OpenUrl PubMed

[2] Alfarouk KO,

[3] AlHoufie STS,

[4] Ahmed SBM,

[5] Shabana M,

[6] Ahmed A,

[7] Alqahtani SS, et al.

[8] 2.
Lai CC,
Shih TP,
Ko WC,
Tang HJ,
Hsueh PR.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): the epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55: 105924.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[9] Lai CC,

[10] Shih TP,

[11] Ko WC,

[12] Tang HJ,

[13] Hsueh PR.

[14] 3.↵
Guan WJ,
Ni ZY,
Hu Y,
Liang WH,
Ou CQ,
He JX, et al.
Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 1708–1720.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[15] Guan WJ,

[16] Ni ZY,

[17] Hu Y,

[18] Liang WH,

[19] Ou CQ,

[20] He JX, et al.

[21] 4.↵
Zheng Z,
Chen R,
Li Y,
Liu X,
He W,
Xu Y, et al.
The clinical characteristics of secondary infections of lower respiratory tract in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chin J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 2: 270–274.
OpenUrl

[22] Zheng Z,

[23] Chen R,

[24] Li Y,

[25] Liu X,

[26] He W,

[27] Xu Y, et al.

[28] 5.↵
Morris DE,
Cleary DW,
Clarke SC.
Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics. Front Microbiol 2017; 8: 1041.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[29] Morris DE,

[30] Cleary DW,

[31] Clarke SC.

[32] 6.↵
Arabi YM,
Deeb AM,
Al-Hameed F,
Mandourah Y,
Almekhlafi GA,
Sindi AA, et al.
Macrolides in critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Int J Infect Dis 2019; 81: 184–190.
OpenUrl PubMed

[33] Arabi YM,

[34] Deeb AM,

[35] Al-Hameed F,

[36] Mandourah Y,

[37] Almekhlafi GA,

[38] Sindi AA, et al.

[39] 7.↵
Zhang G,
Hu C,
Luo L,
Fang F,
Chen Y,
Li J, et al.
Clinical features and short-term outcomes of 221 patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. J Clin Virol 2020; 127: 104364.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[40] Zhang G,

[41] Hu C,

[42] Luo L,

[43] Fang F,

[44] Chen Y,

[45] Li J, et al.

[46] 8.↵
Huttner BD,
Catho G,
Pano-Pardo JR,
Pulcini C,
Schouten J.
COVID-19: don’t neglect antimicrobial stewardship principles! Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26: 808–810.
OpenUrl PubMed

[47] Huttner BD,

[48] Catho G,

[49] Pano-Pardo JR,

[50] Pulcini C,

[51] Schouten J.

[52] 9.↵
Zhu X,
Ge Y,
Wu T,
Zhao K,
Chen Y,
Wu B, et al.
Co-infection with respiratory pathogens among COVID-2019 cases. Virus Res 2020; 285: 198005.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[53] Zhu X,

[54] Ge Y,

[55] Wu T,

[56] Zhao K,

[57] Chen Y,

[58] Wu B, et al.

[59] 10.↵
Yang X,
Yu Y,
Xu J,
Shu H,
Xia J,
Liu H, et al.
Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 475–481.
OpenUrl PubMed

[60] Yang X,

[61] Yu Y,

[62] Xu J,

[63] Shu H,

[64] Xia J,

[65] Liu H, et al.

[66] 11.↵
Rawson TM,
Moore LSP,
Zhu N,
Ranganathan N,
Skolimowska K,
Gilchrist M, et al.
Bacterial and fungal coinfection in individuals with coronavirus: a rapid review to support COVID-19 antimicrobial prescribing. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71: 2459–2468.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[67] Rawson TM,

[68] Moore LSP,

[69] Zhu N,

[70] Ranganathan N,

[71] Skolimowska K,

[72] Gilchrist M, et al.

[73] 12.↵
Søgaard KK,
Baettig V,
Osthoff M,
Marsch S,
Leuzinger K,
Schweitzer M, et al.
Community-acquired and hospital-acquired respiratory tract infection and bloodstream infection in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. J Intensive Care 2021; 9: 10.
OpenUrl

[74] Søgaard KK,

[75] Baettig V,

[76] Osthoff M,

[77] Marsch S,

[78] Leuzinger K,

[79] Schweitzer M, et al.

[80] 13.↵
Xing Q,
Li G,
Xing Y,
Chen T,
Li W,
Ni W, et al.
Precautions are needed for COVID-19 patients with coinfection of common respiratory pathogens. [Updated 2020; accessed 2021 July 17]. Available from: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.29.20027698v2

[81] Xing Q,

[82] Li G,

[83] Xing Y,

[84] Chen T,

[85] Li W,

[86] Ni W, et al.

[87] 14.↵
Lippi G,
Cervellin G.
Procalcitonin for diagnosing and monitoring bacterial infections: for or against? Clin Chem Lab Med 2018; 56: 1193–1195.
OpenUrl

[88] Lippi G,

[89] Cervellin G.

[90] 15.↵
Worldometer. Saudi Arabia. [Updated 2022; accessed 2021 July 17]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/saudi-arabia/

[91] 16.↵
Kurashi NY,
Al-Hamdan A,
Ibrahim EM,
Al-Idrissi HY,
Al-Bayari TH.
Community acquired acute bacterial and atypical pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. Thorax 1992; 47: 115–118.
OpenUrl Abstract/FREE Full Text

[92] Kurashi NY,

[93] Al-Hamdan A,

[94] Ibrahim EM,

[95] Al-Idrissi HY,

[96] Al-Bayari TH.

[97] 17.↵
Asghar AH,
Ashshi AM,
Azhar EI,
Bukhari SZ,
Zafar TA,
Momenah AM.
Profile of bacterial pneumonia during Hajj. Indian J Med Res 2011; 133: 510–513.
OpenUrl PubMed

[98] Asghar AH,

[99] Ashshi AM,

[100] Azhar EI,

[101] Bukhari SZ,

[102] Zafar TA,

[103] Momenah AM.

[104] 18.↵
Balkhy HH,
Cunningham G,
Chew FK,
Francis C,
Al Nakhli DJ,
Almuneef MA, et al.
Hospital- and community-acquired infections: a point prevalence and risk factors survey in a tertiary care center in Saudi Arabia. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 326–333.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[105] Balkhy HH,

[106] Cunningham G,

[107] Chew FK,

[108] Francis C,

[109] Al Nakhli DJ,

[110] Almuneef MA, et al.

[111] 19.↵
Davis B,
Rothrock AN,
Swetland S,
Andris H,
Davis P,
Rothrock SG.
Viral and atypical respiratory co-infections in COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open 2020; 1: 533–548.
OpenUrl

[112] Davis B,

[113] Rothrock AN,

[114] Swetland S,

[115] Andris H,

[116] Davis P,

[117] Rothrock SG.

[118] 20.↵
Ratnamohan VM,
Taylor J,
Zeng F,
McPhie K,
Blyth CC,
Adamson S, et al.
Pandemic clinical case definitions are non-specific: multiple respiratory viruses circulating in the early phases of the 2009 influenza pandemic in New South Wales, Australia. Virol J 2014; 11: 113.
OpenUrl PubMed

[119] Ratnamohan VM,

[120] Taylor J,

[121] Zeng F,

[122] McPhie K,

[123] Blyth CC,

[124] Adamson S, et al.

[125] 21.↵
Lai CC,
Wang CY,
Hsueh PR.
Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: the need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents? J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020; 53: 505–512.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[126] Lai CC,

[127] Wang CY,

[128] Hsueh PR.

[129] 22.↵
Lim WS. Pneumonia-overview
. In: encyclopedia of respiratory medicine (second edition). Elsevier 2022: 185–197.

[130] Lim WS. Pneumonia-overview

[131] 23.↵
Eliakim-Raz N,
Robenshtok E,
Shefet D,
Gafter-Gvili A,
Vidal L,
Paul M, et al.
Empiric antibiotic coverage of atypical pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 2012: CD004418.

[132] Eliakim-Raz N,

[133] Robenshtok E,

[134] Shefet D,

[135] Gafter-Gvili A,

[136] Vidal L,

[137] Paul M, et al.

[138] 24.↵
Eljaaly K,
Alshehri S,
Aljabri A,
Abraham I,
Al Mohajer M,
Kalil AC, et al.
Clinical failure with and without empiric atypical bacteria coverage in hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17: 385.
OpenUrl

[139] Eljaaly K,

[140] Alshehri S,

[141] Aljabri A,

[142] Abraham I,

[143] Al Mohajer M,

[144] Kalil AC, et al.

[145] 25.↵
Linscheid P,
Seboek D,
Nylen ES,
Langer I,
Schlatter M,
Becker KL, et al.
In vitro and in vivo calcitonin I gene expression in parenchymal cells: a novel product of human adipose tissue. Endocrinology 2003; 144: 5578–5584.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science

[146] Linscheid P,

[147] Seboek D,

[148] Nylen ES,

[149] Langer I,

[150] Schlatter M,

[151] Becker KL, et al.

[152] 26.↵
May M,
Chang M,
Dietz D,
Shoucri S,
Laracy J,
Sobieszczyk ME, et al.
Limited utility of procalcitonin in identifying community-associated bacterial infections in patients presenting with coronavirus disease 2019. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65: e02167–e02120.
OpenUrl

[153] May M,

[154] Chang M,

[155] Dietz D,

[156] Shoucri S,

[157] Laracy J,

[158] Sobieszczyk ME, et al.

[159] 27.↵
Alosaimi B,
Naeem A,
Hamed ME,
Alkadi HS,
Alanazi T,
Al Rehily SS, et al.
Influenza co-infection associated with severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. Virol J 2021; 18: 127.
OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed

[160] Alosaimi B,

[161] Naeem A,

[162] Hamed ME,

[163] Alkadi HS,

[164] Alanazi T,

[165] Al Rehily SS, et al.

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Seroprevalence of community-acquired atypical bacterial pneumonia among adult COVID-19 patients from a single center in Al Madinah Al Munawarah, Saudi Arabia

A retrospective cohort study

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Seroprevalence of community-acquired atypical bacterial pneumonia among adult COVID-19 patients from a single center in Al Madinah Al Munawarah, Saudi Arabia

A retrospective cohort study

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